In neuroscience, one of the most important mechanisms behind motivation, desire, and attachment is Reward Prediction Error (RPE), a dopamine-based learning signal discovered in the work of neuroscientist Wolfram Schultz and later applied to human behavior, addiction, and relationships. What is Reward Prediction Error? Reward Prediction Error describes the gap between what we expect and what we actually receive.Dopamine doesn’t simply rise when something feels good — it rises

In the field of trauma psychology, one of the most paradoxical and painful phenomena is trauma bonding, a deep emotional attachment that develops between a victim and the perpetrator of abuse. This attachment often keeps individuals trapped in destructive relationships long after they become aware of the harm being done to them. Understanding trauma bonding requires exploring both the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms that sustain it. What Is Trauma Bonding? The te

Depression may feel like life has come to a standstill. But research and the experience of millions of people show that recovery is...